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Academic writing

Introduction

Academic writing takes a variety of forms ranging from research proposals and grant applications, journal articles, theses, published books and book chapters, conference papers and other presentations. This resource will focus on the basic writing conventions that cross different kinds of academic texts.

In a way, academic writing is like a conversation. When contributing to a good conversation, the aim is to articulate a specific idea, or to report a specific piece of information about the subject of discussion in order to further the understanding of all participants. Effective academic writing, like good conversation, depends upon participants making relevant, direct, concise and respectful contributions.

This can be accomplished by attending to writing structure and academic convention.

A good structure is accomplished by providing:

This resource will outline the structural aspects of academic writing. It will also discuss some basic academic writing conventions to assist you to achieve a direct and assertive style of writing.

The structure of an academic text

In order to ensure the reader can follow the key idea within a typically lengthy and complex text, academic writers clearly articulate the central point or finding in the first page or two of their writing. The content in the main body then relates directly to this central point. Diversions from the key point are avoided.

Evidence that will support the main idea is organised into unified sections, which are then discussed in a logical order in the main body. The most important information is always presented first, followed by the next most important, and so on to the least important. Each section is summarised in a key point, which is often stated in the introduction.  

Each segment of evidence is then taken up in turn in a separate section in the main body of the text in the order in which it was introduced. Within each section, the main point is introduced and concluded in turn in the first and last sentences and paragraphs of the section.

Introductions and conclusions of all kinds can be thought about as 'power positions' because they carry the main points. Power positions include the main introduction and conclusion, and the introductions and conclusions within the sections and sub-sections of a document, including the first and last sentences of paragraphs. When constructing a text, it is important to avoid delaying the main point beyond the introductory section, or trailing off at the end of a section without drawing together the main message of that section.

This way of structuring an academic text is represented below.

Introduction
Statement of the overall main point or take home message (in addition to rationale, justification, contextualisation, key definitions)
Introduction of main content areas that will support the main message
– Content 1
– Content 2
– Content 3
Section 1, Content area 1
First paragraph provides the main idea of content area 1
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 1
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 1 and links to content area 2
Section 2, Content area 2
First paragraph states the main point of content area 2
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 2
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 2 and links to content area 3
Section 3, Content area 3
First paragraph states the main point of content area 3
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 3
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 3
Conclusion
First sentences summarise main points 1, 2, and 3
Main body of conclusion comprises discussion of implications of conclusions 1, 2 and 3
Last sentence provides summative statement of the implications of the main point or take home message.

Paragraphs and topic sentences

Blocks of text within the sections and sub-sections of the main body of the text are called paragraphs. A paragraph has one main point. In order to avoid losing or confusing the main point of the paragraph, you can provide an overview sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. This is called a topic sentence. This sentence is followed with further explication of the topic of the paragraph. In effect the topic sentence creates a sense of expectation which is fulfilled in the main body of the paragraph. The direction of well written papers can then be gleaned from reading the first sentence of each paragraph.

Signposting and transition sentences

Academic writing is much like leading the reader through a maze by signposting which direction will be taken at the beginning of new turns in the discussion, and summarising what has been covered at the end of a section of writing. For the most part, signposting sentences and transition sentences appear at the beginning and ending of texts, or of the sections within them. Their function is to signal a shift in the direction of ideas, to establish logical connections and conclusions, or the relationships between ideas.

Signposting and transition sentences come in several forms. Introductory signposting sentences indicate what you are doing, why you are doing it, and how you are going to go about doing it. Introductory signposting phrases should be few, and located within introductions, introductory paragraphs, or perhaps the first and last sentences of paragraphs. 

Signposting sentences provided at the end of paragraphs and sections aim to draw together the main ideas or conclusions, and to highlight the significance or relevance of the preceding discussion. Concluding signposting sentences should be more numerous than introductory signposting sentences because they provide direction, and give the text a critical, assertive tone.

'Transition' sentences and phrases are a mixture of introductory and concluding signposting sentences. Transitions usually involve summarising or pointing to the main point or topic of a particular section of writing, and then signalling a new topic of discussion.

Examples of different kinds of signposting and transition sentences are provided below.

Introductory signposting sentence stems

Concluding signposting sentence stems

Transition sentence stems

Transition words

Repeating key terms

In addition to the use of clear, well appointed signposting and transition sentences, a smooth transition of ideas can be accomplished by repeating key terms.

Vague, dense writing is improved by replacing terms like 'it', 'they' and 'which' with specific key terms.

For example, compare the first paragraph below with the improved version that follows:

Ethics refers to a system of moral principles for judging whether a particular action is right or wrong, as well as a set of rules of conduct for a specific class of actors or actions. It provides professionals with a set of standards to guide decision making. However, it is not something that can be ensured by the provision of a code alone.

In this paragraph, the first sentence introduces two different but related meanings for the subject of the paragraph, ethics, moral principles and rules of conduct. However, the use of the term 'it' in the beginning of the second and third sentences, makes it unclear which of these meanings of ethics is being referred to in the those sentences.

In the following paragraph, 'it' has been replaced with 'professional code of conduct' and 'ethical action' to signal precisely what is being referred to in the sentence.

Ethics refers to a system of moral principles for judging whether a particular action is right or wrong, as well as a set of rules of conduct for a specific class of actors or actions. Codes of conduct provide professionals with a set of rules to guide decision making. However, ethical action is not something that can be assured by the provision of a code alone.

Here it becomes clear that it is professional codes of conduct that provide a limited guide for ethical action.

Writing clarity can also be improved by using the same key term rather than several different words to describe the same phenomena.

For example, compare the first paragraph below with the improved version that follows:

This study will examine industrialisation processes in China from the late 1900s to the present. While growing structural differentiation was evident in the early part of the century, agrarian economies also continued to flourish. In the past 50 years, the move toward revolutionised means of production has continued unchecked.

In this paragraph, 'industrialisation processes', 'structural differentiation' and 'revolutionised means of production' are used to describe the same phenomenon, although this is not immediately clear to the reader.

In the next paragraph, these terms are replaced with one term expressed as 'industrialisation' or 'industrial economy':

This study will examine industrialisation processes in China from the late 1900’s to the present. While industrialisation was evident in the early part of the century, agrarian economies also continued to flourish. In the past 50 years, the move toward an industrial economy has continued unchecked.

The use of the same key term in this paragraph enables the significance of the key point to emerge clearly − that in the past 50 years industry has become the dominant economic form in China.

Academic writing conventions

Audience

In addition to a well devised structure, the persuasiveness and clarity of academic writing can be improved by carefully considering the expectations and knowledge of the audience of the text.

Academic writing, like all good writing, should be tailored to a specific audience. The audience the text is intended to reach determines what is emphasised and included, how much detail is required, and the writing style that will be adopted.

For the most part, academics write for academic audiences. This is because research must first be tested and refined within its relevant field of expertise before it can be publicly disseminated. In this way, processes of academic peer review aim to protect the public from faulty or misleading information.

Academic audiences differ widely, and it is important to consider the background knowledge of a specific academic audience within the writing process. Some academic audiences are highly specialised, others are more generalist, and some are comprised of researchers from a variety of different disciplinary backgrounds.

Journal articles are written with the concerns and expertise of the journal readership in mind. For this reason, journal articles often presume a more specialised audience than other kinds of academic writing. This can explain the oblique references made within many journals to debates and perspectives that would only be familiar to other experts in the journal's field of interest.

Scholarly books, on the other hand, are often targeted to wider public or novice audiences and will not assume an extensive background knowledge in the subject area.

Conference audiences vary widely. Some are attended by researchers from different backgrounds, in which case, papers and presentations must explain core premises explicitly. Others attract more specialist audiences and presenters do not need to provide the same level of background explanation they would for mixed audiences.

Internal research proposals, like those written for conferral of candidature, aim to fulfil the expected requirements of the degree, and are written largely for the supervisor and other academics within the School. Research proposals aim to ensure that those involved in the research are clear about the research aims and objectives, and to demonstrate that the research can be completed within the given time frame and resource limitations. The content of the research proposal then reflects these objectives.

Theses are written for examination by examiners with extensive knowledge in some aspect of the field of study. They are also written for publication in specialist journals. PhD and Masters theses therefore tend to adopt specialised language. However, even though the examiner or journal reviewer will be expert in some aspect of the study, it is important to explain the ideas of author's cited, and any concepts and terms used in the thesis explicitly so that your meaning of the term is clear.

Disciplinary conventions

The structure and presentation of academic writing, as well as the point of view adopted by the writer, varies considerably depending upon the disciplinary background of the audience it is written for. Different disciplinary conventions apply to questions such as whether and how often to use the first person pronoun, passive or active voice, or references to the researcher in the singular or plural ('I', 'we').

Words and phrases can also mean different things within different disciplines, and the meaning of commonly accepted terms are sometimes contested within a discipline. For example, 'post modern' is used to refer to a style of architecture and design within architecture, and a time period or field of social thought within the humanities. The use of terms like 'power', 'class', 'culture' and 'identity' are theorised in different and contested ways within the social sciences and humanities and therefore require careful use, whereas they may be used without attracting comment in another discipline area.

The style and structure of academic texts also varies between disciplines. For example, in areas like psychology or health sciences a 'report style' of writing is frequently adopted in which sections on 'method', 'measures', 'results', 'discussion' are expected. In other areas, texts are organised around conceptual, historical, policy, or other groupings of ideas.

There is no 'correct' set of academic writing rules, rather different conventions apply to different disciplines and fields or methodologies within disciplines. As a general rule of thumb, it is best to stay within the broad conventions of the field within which you are writing. Choose a group of writers, journals or books that are closest to your own perspective and adopt the same writing conventions they use.

Acknowledging sources

Different fields of study also adopt different referencing systems. For more information about referencing styles and ethics, please go to: Learning and Teaching Unit referencing resource.

Technical language and jargon

Like the specialist languages adopted in other professions, technical, theoretical and other academic jargon is designed to convey agreed meaning for a group of scholarly experts. It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field, but it is best to avoid such language when writing for non academic or general audiences. 

Specialist terms must be used accurately. Philosophical, sociological and other specialist dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms. As a general rule, avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of.  

Defining terms

Any term that is contested or not commonly known within the field within which you are writing requires a definition.

Define any term whose meaning:

The first time the term is used, it should be defined precisely and concisely, and then used in this exact sense throughout the text. Provide references where necessary. 

Active and passive voice

Active voice places the actor of the sentence in the subject − the part of the sentence in front of the verb. For example: ‘management implemented the policy’; or ‘the results confirm an increase in violence’.

Passive voice places the actor of the sentence in the predicate (the part of the sentence behind the verb), or leaves it out altogether. For example: ‘the policy was implemented by management’, ‘the policy was implemented’; or ‘an increase in violence is confirmed by the results’, ‘an increase in violence is confirmed’.

Preference is for the active voice because it is more direct, concise and accurate. However, there are times when the passive voice makes more sense. Instances where passive voice is deemed more appropriate than active voice may include:

Use of first person

There are no clearly defined rules about how to use the first person ('I', 'we', 'me', 'us', 'my' and 'our'). Whether or not you use the first person will depend upon the writing context and your purpose in the writing. The sciences traditionally avoid the first person because it can introduce a subjective or personal tone to the writing. In the humanities and social sciences, the first person is more acceptable, perhaps because these disciplines are underpinned by methodologies which question, in various ways, the possibility of value free science. These divisions are changing however, and the sciences are adopting the first person more often.

The first person is useful to provide clear attribution for an idea or comment, and to distinguish the writer's voice from the views of others. For example, using the phrase 'In this paper I will show ... ' is a good way to signal the contribution the writer will make to the broader field. Using the first person is also a good way to convey your passion and involvement in the topic, and to establish a connection with an audience. For this reason, the first person is often adopted within oral forums.

On the other hand, inappropriate use of the first person can undermine your writing by implying that the point being made is only the writer's opinion, rather than an objective or widely agreed upon observation. Compare for example: 'I believe there is a discrepancy between practice and policy claims', with 'This study suggests there is a discrepancy between practice and policy claims'.

Personal experience

Although sharing personal experience on its own will not be enough to persuade readers of your point of view, it is sometimes useful and appropriate.

Sharing personal information is relevant when your experience is part of the research data. You might explore your own experience in order to understand a specific phenomena, or because the way you engaged with your research participants revealed something about the specific phenomena or context your study aims to explore.

Often it is helpful to share anecdotes from your personal experience to highlight the problem the research is concerned with, to establish your credibility with the subject matter (if you have a background in the area for example), or to provide an example to support a key idea.

As a general rule, refer to personal experience only when it supports the development of the main ideas.

Fair critique

When critiquing the work of others, some general rules apply:

Fallacies in arguments

Adapted from Thornless and Thornless 1980, in Hart, C. 1988. Doing a literature review, Sage, Thousand Oates.

 Assertive writing

An assertive tone is preferable to an ambivalent or uncertain tone, and can be accomplished by making direct statements.

For example: ‘This study shows that …’, ‘In section 2, I assess …’ rather than: 'This study might show that …’, ‘In section 2, I will try to assess …’.

One way of achieving an assertive stance when discussing the ideas of others is to foreground your own point of view, and to use the ideas and statements of others to support it.

For example, compare the first paragraph below with the improved version that follows:

Despite decades of research, some authors still claim that the burden of family care is not well understood. Hoenig and Hamilton (1966) first described carer’s subjective perception of caring, and objective factors like the social and economic costs of caring to the carer. Yamashita (1998) comments that only a few studies consider the health of the family unit, the strengths that families bring to caring, and the family caregiver’s expertise as manager of their relatives care.

In this paragraph, the first sentence foregrounds 'some authors', the second 'Hoenig and Hamilton', and the third 'Yamashita'. The author's voice is drowned out by the claims of other writers. This makes it difficult to determine the main point of the paragraph.

In the next paragraph, the writer's voice is given priority and the literature is used to support it:

Despite decades of research, the burden of family care is still not well understood. Most studies have focused upon the carer’s subjective perception of caring, and objective factors like the social and economic costs of caring to the carer (see for example, Hoenig and Hamilton, 1966). Little attention has been given to the health of the family unit, the strengths that families bring to caring, and the family caregiver’s expertise as manager of their relatives care (Yamashita, 1988).

In this paragraph, the author's voice and the main point of the paragraph is strengthened by making direct claims that are then supported by the views of others.

Direct quotes

In general, the ideas of others should be paraphrased in your own words and followed with reference details. Direct quotes should be used sparingly.

The use of direct quotes is appropriate when:

When a direct quote is provided:

Word choice

Academic writing, unlike literary writing which aims to evoke images, feelings and sympathies, aims to convey ideas concisely, simply, directly and accurately. It is important then to use language that conveys ideas, rather than language that might distract from the key ideas. The emphasis should be upon the ideas, not the personality of the writer.

Some general rules can be used to accomplish this:

Verb tense

Past tense is used to report methods and results (because they describe what was done and what was found). For example: ‘we interviewed’, ‘interviews were conducted’.

Present tense is used to describe how data are presented and to report on figures and tables (because this is still true). For example: ‘data are summarised as mean + SD’, or ‘Figure 1 shows …’.

Past tense is used to refer to past research: 'Harrison and Quah (1990) found that in current architectural approaches, the strong image of high tech buildings relies on a clear bright efficient look' … and 'In a recent report, Harrison and Quah (1990) determined that good design and detailing act as the first line of defence against weathering'.

Present tense is used to indicate consensus with an author: 'Sharplin (1985) states that environmental assessment basically requires two activities'. Present perfect tense is used to indicate ambivalence about an author’s viewpoint: 'Sharplin (1985) has stated that environmental assessment basically requires two activities'.

 Redundant writing

Good writing avoids redundancy. Redundant writing is any writing that:

A common example of redundancy within research writing is signalling that literature reviews, research designs, limitations, and definitions will be provided later in the discussion. This is redundant writing because it is taken for granted that these elements will form part of a research thesis or research proposal.

Examples of redundant writing:

Sentences of this kind can be deleted because they do not provide the reader with new information.

Another common example of redundancy within research writing is chapter reviews that do not provide information about what will be covered in the chapter.

For example:

Chapter two will provide an overview and analysis of literature and research about nursing care. I will identify aspects of care, and then the beginnings of a theoretical framework that will inform this study. I will then contextualize this study by providing an overview of definitions of care within the nursing literature.

This paragraph signals that a literature review, a theoretical framing, and a definition will be provided in chapter two without providing detail about the fields of research that will be reviewed, or the theory and definition that will actually be used.

The paragraph could be rewritten to provide more specific information.

For example:

Chapter two outlines theoretical conceptualisations of ‘care’ within nursing literature informed by feminist psychology and the philosophy of ethics. The chapter suggests that nursing needs to consider whether continuing attempts to define, measure and describe care are necessary. It suggests instead, that Wittgenstein’s (1958) notion of family resemblance satisfactorily resolves many of the definitional issues of care and caring within nursing.

This paragraph is better than the one above because it informs the reader of the fields of literature to be reviewed, and of the perspective that will be developed in the chapter.

Abbreviations

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or words that typically consists only of the first letter of each word. Abbreviations should be used only for terms whose abbreviation is commonly known or used, or for a term that will be used frequently throughout the entirety of the text.

Abbreviations that consist of more than one capital letter are written without full stops (for example, USA). The full name is provided the first time the term is used, followed by the abbreviation in brackets. The term is then referred to in the abbreviated form thereafter.

 

This web resource was developed by Wendy Bastalich.

 

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